Course
No.
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EED- 305
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Credit
Hours
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2
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|
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Title
of Course
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Pakistan Studies
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Semester
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2nd
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Q . NO .O1: Ideology of Pakistan
Ideology is a set of beliefs, values and ideals of a group and a nation. It is deeply ingrained in the
social consciousness of the people. It is a set of principles, a framework of action and guidance
system that gives order and meaning to life and human action.
Ideology emphasizes on some particular principles, ideals and blueprint for the future. It is a
review of the existing political, social and economic arrangements that create consciousness
based on its principles. It legitimizes or delegitimizes certain actions and philosophies. Ideology
gives nation a direction and worldview and its implementation is the responsibility of the
concerned people
The ideology of Pakistan took shape through an evolutionary process. Historical experience
provided the base; Allama Iqbal gave it a philosophical explanation; Quaid-i-Azam translated it
into a political reality; and the Constituent Assembly of Pakistan, by passing Objectives
Resolution in March 1949, gave it legal sanction. It was due to the realization of the Muslims of
South Asia that they are different from the Hindus that they demanded separate electorates.
However when they realized that their future in a ‘Democratic India’ dominated by Hindu
majority was not safe, they changed their demand to a separate state.
The ideology of Pakistan stemmed from the instinct of the Muslim community of South Asia to
maintain their individuality in the Hindu society. The Muslims believed that Islam and Hinduism
are not only two religions, but are two social orders that produced two distinct cultures. There is
no compatibility between the two. A deep study of the history of this land proves that the
differences between Hindus and Muslims are not confined to the struggle for political supremacy
but are also manifested in the clash of two social orders. Despite living together for more than
one thousand years, they continue to develop different cultures and traditions. Their eating
habits, music, architecture and script, all are poles apart
Q .NO. O2: Evolution of ‘Two Nation Theory
Concept of Muslims as a Nation developed before the establishment of Pakistan. Pakistan was
the product of this concept of nationhood rather than Pakistan creating a concept of nationhood.
Retrospectively the Muslim nationalism emerged with the advent of Islam that introduced new
principles pertinent to every sphere of life. It pledged the redemption of the humankind
establishing a benign society based on Qur’anic teachings. The beginning of the Muslim
nationalism in the Sub-Continent may be attributed to the first Indian who accepted Islam. The
Arab traders had introduced the new religion, Islam, in the Indian coastal areas. Muhammad bin
Qasim was the first Muslim invader who conquered some part of India and after that, Mahmud
of Ghazna launched 17 attacks and opened the gate to preach Islam. The Muslim sufi (saints) like
Ali Hejveri, Miran Hussain Zanjani etc. entered Sub-Continent. They, rejecting the vices in the
Indian society, presented the pure practical picture of the teachings of Islam and got huge
conversions. Qutub-ud-Din Aibuk permanently established Muslim dynasty in India that
followed Sultanate and Mughal dynasties. Thus a strong Muslim community had emerged in
India who had its own way of life, traditions, heroes, history and culture. Islam could not be
absorbed in Hinduism. Deen-e-Ilahi, Bakhti movements, etc. created reaction amongst the
Muslim ulama to preserve the pure Islamic character and save it from external onslaught. Role of
Sheikh Ahmad Sirhindi and others is noteworthy. Equality and social justice inspired conversions
to Islam.
The British won over the Muslim rulers due to the industrial and scientific developments and
modern war strategy. The War of Independence (1857) was a shattering setback to the Indian
Muslims who were held responsible for the rebellion by the British. The Muslims were put into
the backwardness with the help of Hindus. This was one of the outstanding motivations that
paved the way to declare the separate identity of nationalism, the Muslim nationalism. The
Muslim scholars sought to reform the teaching of Islamic law and to promote its application in a
Muslim society. The prominent name among them is Sir Syed Ahmad Khan (1817-98) who
awakened and guided his community well in time. His educational drive, the Ali-Garh
movement, proved to be the best means of social mobility for the Muslim gentry under colonial
rule.
In 1885 the Indian National Congress was founded to indicate the beginning of the Indian
nationalist movement under the British. The Congress worked and helped the British rule. Sir
Syed advised the Muslims not to join it because, he thought, the Muslims were not in position to
involve into the anti-government activities. It has been argued that Sir Syed's fear of Hindu
domination sowed the seeds for the "Two Nations Theory" later espoused by the All-India
Muslim League, founded in 1906 and led to its demand for a separate state for the Muslims of
India. Sir Syed argued that modern education and non-political activities might be the key to
Muslim advancement. The Ali-Garh movement produced educated leadership who could protect
the Muslims’ rights on the Western political lines
All India Muslim League had been founded in Dhaka to promote loyalty to the British and to
protect and advance the political rights and interests of the Muslims of India. Thus the concept of
‘separate’ electorates was put forward to dawn a new day for the Indian Muslims.
The Two-Nation Theory served as the basis of demand for Pakistan by the Muslims in British
India. There are two major nations in British India. The Muslims are not a community but a
nation with a distinctive history, heritage, culture, civilization, and future aspirations.
The Muslims wanted to preserve and protect their distinct identity and advance their interests in
India. They wanted to order their lives in accordance with their ideals and philosophy of life
without being overwhelmed by an unsympathetic majority.
Initially, they demanded safeguards, constitutional guarantees and a federal system of
government with powers to the provinces for protection and advancement of their heritage,
identity and interests. Later, they demanded a separate state when neither the British nor the
Hindu majority community was willing to offer those guarantees and safeguards.
Q. NO. O3: Hindi-Urdu Controversy
Hindu revivalist movements turned more against the Muslims. Hindu nationalism was rival to
the Muslim nationalism. The Indian nationalism forced Muslims to organize themselves
politically to defend their interests effectively. After 1857, Hindi-Urdu Controversy was the
major assault by the Hindus on Muslim heritage and legacy of the great Muslim Empire. Hindus
were biased against Urdu as it was the Muslims’ language. They demanded Hindi as the official
language replacing Urdu. There were demonstrations against Urdu by the Hindus in Banaras in
1867. It was the start of the Hindi-Urdu controversy. On the very issue, Sir Syed foretold about
the unstable future of Hindu-Muslim unity. Hindus struggled vigorously to replace Urdu by
Hindi in the offices. This enhanced the importance of the sense of Muslim separatism.
The Muslim nationalism is manifested with the sublime principles to implement like:
1. Rule of Law, socio-economic justice, equity and fair play.
2. Equality of opportunity to all citizens irrespective of caste, sect, religion or region.
3. Religious and Cultural tolerance.
4. Respect for human dignity and rights.
5. Protection of the rights and interests of non-Muslims and freedom to practice their beliefs and
religions.
These principles are enshrined in the constitutions. We ought to work towards realization of these
goals in reality and create institutions and processes that reflect these principles and values.
Q. NO. O4: Ideology of Pakistan in the Light of Statements of QUAID-I-AZAM and ALLAMA
The Development of Muslim Identity and Two-Nation Theory and Quaid-i-Azam and Allama
Iqbal
The sense of nationhood developed among the Muslims before the establishment of Pakistan.
Their goal was mostly to protect and promote their identity and interests and shape their lives in
accord with their ideals and philosophy of life without being overwhelmed by an unsympathetic
majority. They adopted the strategy to get constitutional safeguards from the British against the
cruel majority of Hindus but because of the antagonistic treatment from the rivals they set the
goal of a separate state. Islam had central place to their further developments.
The role of leadership is very important to put nation on the way. A good leadership infuses the
qualities of awareness, consciousness, mobilization, sense of direction, and defense against the
adversaries. The Muslims were lucky having such competent leadership.
M. A. Jinnah was a history-making leader who changed the course of history. He possessed a
visionary leadership, commitment to the cause and political mobilization capacity. He was a
Charismatic Leader in the real sense of the meaning.
Jinnah played a decisive role in articulating the Muslim demands and pursuing these faced strong
opposition from the Hindus and the British. He started his political career in 1906 by joining the
Indian National Congress. He was elected to the Legislative Council in 1909 and in 1913 he also
joined the All India Muslim League (AIML). Now he was member of both the political parties.
Having disagreement with Gandhi on the issue of Swaraj (self-rule), complete freedom from the
British and on using extra-constitutional means, Jinnah resigned from the Congress in 1920.
His early efforts to promote Hindu-Muslim unity were materialized when THE LUCKNOW
PACT (1916) was signed. The Hindus accepted the Muslim demands:
• Separate Electorate
• One-third Seats in Central Legislature
• protection of minority rights
In the Nehru Report, the accepted Muslim rights were ignored. Jinnah retaliated forcefully by
presenting 14 Points in 1929. He defined Muslim identity and mobilized them with reference to
Islam and convinced others that Muslims are different from the Hindus and the Congress. Islamic
principles, concepts and symbols surfaced in his speeches and statements.
Jinnah used the term NATION for the Muslims of India in Feb 1935 (Legislative Assembly). He
argued that the combination of religion, culture, race, arts, music and so forth make a minority a
SEPARATE ENTITY. In March 1936 Bombay, he stated that the Muslims could arrive at a
settlement with Hindus as TWO Nations. In 1937, he asserted that there is also a third party in
India, the Muslims. In 1939, he roared that the Muslims and Hindus are two nations and they are
going to live as a nation and playing part as a nation:
We are a nation with our own distinctive culture and civilization, language and literature, names
and nomenclature, sense of values and proportion, legal laws and moral code, custom and
calendar, history and tradition, aptitudes and ambitions; in short, we have our own distinctive
outlook on life and of life. By all cannons of international law, we are a nation.
Q. NO. O5: Speeches and statements: 1940-47
Jinnah believed in the force of Islam as he said that Islam is a dynamic force that can unite the
Muslims. It can help to overcome the present crisis. It’s a source of inspiration and guidance
providing ethical foundation, a framework, social order and civilization.
Guidance & inspiration for constitution-making and Governance. He also talked of the modern
notions of state, constitution, civil and political rights and democracy. He assured that
constitution of Pakistan would be framed by the elected assembly
Modern democratic and Islamic State. He gave assurance of equality of all citizens and rights
and freedom to religious minorities in the new state
Q. NO. O6: ALLAMA IQBAL: POET AND PHILOSOPHER
VISION OF A SEPARATE MUSLIM STATE.
Men like Allama Iqbal are born but in centuries. He was conscious of significance of Islam in
lives of the Muslims. His first public appearance was in 1899 at the annual session of Anjuman
Himayat-i-Islam in Lahore when he presented the poem, Nala-i-Yatim.
At initial stages Dr Iqbal was a nationalist by ideas and his poetry contained verses like Tarana-i Hind. His poetry was a critique of the existing societal conditions. Being educated from Europe,he knew all weak aspects of the Western culture. He criticized capitalism, materialism and lack
of spiritualism.
IQBAL- Focus on the conditions of the Indian Muslims
- Islam can salvage the Muslims.
- Islam has always saved Muslim.
- Islam is a living and dynamic ideology that can meet modern challenges.
- Islam to help them to overcome their internal discord and enable them to meet external
challenges with spiritualism based derived from Islam Ijtehad and Reinterpretation.
Address to the Muslim League Session, Allahabad, December 1930
I would like to see the Punjab, NWFP, Sind, Balochistan amalgamated into a single state as a self
government within the British Empire or without. This is the final destiny of the Muslims of
N.W. India.
(Dr Iqbal’s verses may be quoted) web site may also be visited:
Q. NO. O7: The Aligarh Movement
The War of Independence 1857 ended in a disaster for the Muslims. The British believed that the
Muslims were responsible for the war of 1857 and therefore, they were subjected to ruthless
punishment and merciless revenge. The British had always looked upon the Muslims as their
enemies because they had ousted them from power. With the war of 1857 this feeling was
intensified and every attempt was made to ruin and suppress the Muslims forever. Thus the
Mughal rule came to an end and the sub- continent went directly under the British crown.
Sir Syed Ahmad Khan made modern education the way to progress. After the Muslim rule, the
new rulers, the British, implemented a new educational policy with drastic changes. The policy
restricted Arabic, Persian and religious education in schools and made English as the only
medium of instruction as well as the official language in 1835. A wrong attitude of everything
modern and Western, and disinclination to make use of the opportunities opening under the new
regime was created among the Muslims. This tendency, had it continued long, would have
proved disastrous for the Muslim community.
Such were the days of despair and despondency when Sir Syed appeared on the horizon of Muslim India to rescue them. Sir Syed had the conviction that regeneration of the Indian
Muslims had not at all visualized that mankind had entered a very important phase of its
existence, i.e. an era of science and learning which was the source of progress and prosperity for
the British. Therefore, modern education became the pivot of his movement for the regeneration
of the Indian Muslims, which brought a complete orientation in their lives. He tried to transform
Muslim minds from medieval outlook to a modern one.
Hali and Shibli were also associated with the Aligarh Movement. Sir Syed’s first and foremost
objective was to modernize the Muslims following the Western cultural values that could create
friendly atmosphere for the two communities. He motivated his community to learn the Western
philosophy and English literature to get along with the ruling people. Therefore, in order to fulfill
this desire he started the Aligarh movement. He had two immediate objectives in view:
- To remove the state of tension between the Muslims and the British government.
- To induce them to get jobs and other facilities under the new government.
- To him, this was the only way for the Muslims to prosper.
The ideas of Sir Syed may be summed up as following:
- . To create an atmosphere of mutual understanding between the British government and the
Muslims..
- To motivate the Muslims to learn Western education.
- . To persuade Muslims to abstain from agitational politics
Fortunately, Syed Ahmad Khan was able to attract a number of sincere friends who shared his
views and helped him. Among them were well-known figures like Nawab Mohsin ul Mulk,
Nawab Viqar ul Mulk, Hali, Shibli, Nazir Ahmad, Chiragh Ali, Mohammad Hayat, and
Zakaullah. All these personalities advocated the cause set by Sir Syed Ahmad Khan. Some
English professors like Bech, Morison, Raleigh and Arnold also contributed greatly in building
up the Aligarh college into a first rate institution.
Syed Ahmad launched his educational movement by setting up Gulshan School at Muradabad -
1859; Victoria School at Gazipur in 1863; Scientific Society for the translation of English works
in the native language, Urdu, at Aligarh in 1864; Aligarh Institute Gazette imparting information
on history - ancient and modern, science of agriculture, natural sciences, physical sciences and
Advanced Mathematics in 1866; Committee Striving for the Educational Progress of Muslims -
1870; Mohammedan Anglo-Oriental School (MAO) at Aligarh in 1875 at the pattern of English
public schools and later raised to the level of college in 1877 and university in 1920;
Mohammedan Educational Conference (1886), which met every year to take stock of the
educational problems of the Muslims and to persuade them to get modern education and abstain from politics; it later became a political mouthpiece of the Indian Muslims and the forerunner of
the All India Muslim league.
Besides his prominent role in the educational uplift of the Muslims, Syed Ahmad Khan’s
writings played important role in popularizing the ideals for which the Aligarh stood. His Risala
Asbab-i-Baghawat-i-Hind in 1858; and other writings as Loyal Mohammedans of India; Tabyinul-Kalam and Khutbat-i-Ahmadiya rooted out the misunderstandings about Islamic teachings and
helped create a cordial relation between the, British Government and the Indian Muslims and
also helped to remove the misunderstanding about Islam and Christianity.
It was this platform from where Syed Ahmad Khan strongly forbade the Muslims to join the
Hindu dominated political party, the Indian National Congress. He regretted the Urdu-Hindi
controversy initiated by Hindus and predicted that both the nations could no longer live together.
He stood for reserved Movement theory seats for Muslims and also promoted the idea that
Hindus and Muslims are two distinct nations, which led to the Two Nation, Syed Ahmad Khan’s
Aligarh Movement played a significant role to bring about an intellectual revolution among the
Indian Muslims. Thus Aligarh Movement succeeded in achieving its major objectives and
boosted up the depressed Muslim community to the real status of nation.
Q. NO. O8: Sir Syed Ahmad Khan and His Contributions.
The great emancipator of the Indian Muslims Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was born at Delhi in 1817.
This is the period when the great Mughal Empire was close to a complete collapse. Sir Syed’s
family had already joined the East India Company and his maternal grandfather served in Iran
and Burma under the British government. Sir Syed got interest in English from his maternal
family. SM Ikram writes, “For this insight into the affairs of the state and first contacts with
Western learning and civilization he was indebted to his maternal grandfather…” (S. M. Ikram,
Modern Muslim India, p.18). Sir Syed was very healthy by birth and his grandfather remarked:
“A Jat has been born in our family.” (Ibid., p. 19) The death of Sir Syed forced him to join the
British as head clerk in 1839. The death of his brother made him serious and energetic to face the
neuroses of life courageously. Another event that changed him entirely was the War of
Independence in 1857. In 1841, he passed examination and became sub-judge. At the eve of the
War of Independence he was performing the duties as sub-judge in Bijnore. He established
educational institutions and after coming at Aligarh he rejuvenated his aspirations to work for the
depressed Muslims of the Subcontinent. He devoted his entire life for this purpose to bring the
Muslims close to the British. He died on March 27, 1898 and was buried in Aligarh.
His Services.
He took responsibility of the Indian Muslims when they had been thrown in backwardness,
depression andn humiliation. The British held them criminal of the War while the Hindus had
won the British being anti-Muslim force. In such environment, Sir Syed guided his community to
rejoin the life. To Dr Qalb-i-Abid, “Sir Syed Ahmad Khan was among a very few leaders
produced by Muslim India, who like Mohammad Ali Jinnah made a tremendous contribution in
guiding the destinies of the Indian Muslims.” (Dr Q. Abid, Muslim Struggle for Independence, p.
11.)
Sir Syed and Politics.
In the political arena, Sir Syed carved numerous successes; he eradicated misunderstandings
between the Muslims and the British infused due to the past particular incidents. Awakening
among the Muslims about the political ups and downs and co-existence in the presence of other
nations in India was another contribution of Sir Syed. He motivated the Muslims to absorb the
modern education of the West because this was the very motive of the Western expansion in the
world. He visualized the bright future of the Muslims if they engaged themselves in the Western
learning.
Sir Syed won the British confidence and cordial relationship by saving their lives during the War
of Independence. He utilized this relationship for the betterment of the Muslims. It was a subtle
situation because the government had put the War crimes on the Muslim shoulders and assaulted
their every aspect of life: “These events were a trauma for the Muslims; …the methods used by
them shocked the civilized world. The detestation of Delhi as a centre of Muslim culture was
horrendous; Bahadur Shah Zafar…was exiled to Rangoon; Lt. Hodson shot three Mughal princes
and later 24 princes were tried and executed; a vast ocean of blood there was; Some Muslims
were shot dead and their dead bodies were thrown into the river Jamna…” (Ibid., p. 14). All
Muslims were ousted from land, property and employments that made them third class citizens
of India. This created revengeful sentiments among the Muslims who detested British, their
culture and civilization. Sir Syed was of the view that British were a civilized, educated, wise
and disciplined nation and occupied India with the new war strategy and munitions that could not
be matched by the locals and particularly by the Muslims. Therefore at the juncture the Muslims
should mould themselves according to the pace of time to avoid more disaster.
Sir Syed published Loyal Mohammedans of India and Risala Asbab-i-Baghawat-i-Hind that
helped both the nations to redress their grievances. In 1885 the Indian National Congress was
founded but Sir Syed warned the Muslims from the sinister aspirations of the Hindus. Another factor was that he intended the Muslims to abstain from the politics that could result in friction
with the ruling nation.
Q. NO. O9: Urdu-Hindi Controversy.
Urdu grew as common language of all the Indians regardless of origin or religion but in 1867 the
Benarsi Hindus started campaign to replace Urdu by Hindi. To gain the objectives, they declared
numerous organizations, which discouraged Sir Syed who said to Shakespeare that since now
both the nations could not live together. Later the followers of Sir Syed tried their level best to
save Urdu language. Mohsin ul Mulk was the outstanding person who organized the Muslims in
defense of Urdu.
Q. NO. 10: Muslims-as a Nation.
Sir Syed used the word ‘nation’ for the Muslims. Some writers criticize that he declared Hindus
and Muslims one nation. But as a matter of fact, he advocated the Hindu-Muslim unity that
meant,‘the working relationship’ between the two nations as once he said: “Hindus and Muslims
should try to be of one mind in matters which affected their progress.” He favored separate
electorate for the Muslims in 1883 saying that the majority would override the interests of the
minority. (P. Hardy, pp. 136-37)
Q. NO. 11: Mohammedan Defense Association.
In December 1893, Sir Syed founded the Association. Its main purpose was to protect the
political, religious and social rights of the Muslims. Sir Syed was great because he contributed
greatly to the Muslim struggle for identity. Otto von Bismarck served the German nation with the
help of all government sources but Sir Syed did the same without all this. To Khalid Bin Sayeed,
“Many tributes have been paid to Sir Sayyed, particularly by modern educated Muslims for
being daring enough to put forward such views in an age which was by no means liberal or
tolerant.” (Dr Khalid Bin Sayeed, Pakistan, the Formative Phase, p. 17).
Q.NO. 12: Major Political Developments 1857-1918.
The year 1857 brought decline to the Muslim rule in India. Muslims and Hindus participated in
the War of Independence but the British held only Muslims responsible for the rebellion. The
Muslims were persecuted ruthlessly and left at the mercy of time. The post war era was disastrous for the Muslims but some personalities emerged on the national scene and played
excellent role to guide their people in this critical situation. The Central Mohammedan
Association of Justice Amir Ali Syed and the Aligarh movement are very prominent in this
regard. Their efforts for revival of the self-identity and political positioning in the Indian society
enabled them to face any challenge in the future.
Some important issues have already been discussed in the previous lectures. So a brief reference
to events in historical context may be given:
• Decline after the 1857 Uprising
• Sir Syed and his colleagues’ efforts for revival
• Removal of misunderstanding between the Muslims and the British
• Educational movement or acquisition of modern knowledge and English
• Hindi-Urdu Controversy was the issue that unearthed the hatred and enmity of
Hindu community towards the Muslims.
• Formation of the Congress was a method to incorporate the Muslims in Hinduism. It
popularized the agitational politics that Muslims could not afford because they were still
recovering the past gaps.
• Hindu Revivalist movements mostly targeted the Muslims that accelerated the pace of
widening the gulf between the two nations.
Events Since the Beginning of 20TH Century.
- Partition of Bengal, 1905
- Simla Deputation, 1906
- Formation of the Muslim League, 1906
- Changes in the Goals of the Muslim League, 1913
5. Lucknow Pact, 1916
- Partition of Bengal: 1905
United Bengal’s area covered 189,000 sq. miles with 80 million populations. Dr Abdul Hameed
writes in his book, Muslim Separatism in India, that the partition was imperative even if Curzon
had not initiated it. A Lt. Governor had problems in looking after the eastern areas. Mainly
Muslim suffered because of the rotten administration by the British. Before 1905, many
proposals of partition of Bengal had been under consideration but Lord Curzon decided to
practicalise this administrative scheme. East Bengal became incidentally a Muslim majority
province having 13000000 out of 31000000. West Bengal was a Hindu majority province.
Muslims were very happy on the partition as this had enabled them to promote their life
conditions. It was rightly an opportunity for compensation. The Muslim community supported it
strongly but Hindus retaliated furiously saying it the division of motherland. The Congress
joined the anti-partition movement. They started widespread agitation, violence and boycott of
foreign goods. The main reason of Hindu protest was that they had loosened grip over the eastern
parts
2: The Simla Deputation 1906
In fact Simla Deputation was in line with a kind of thinking that was developing amongst the
Muslims during that time i.e. they had certain interests and they must stand up to protect their
rights and unless they do that that objective would not be achieved. The Simla Deputation of
1906 was the first systematic attempt on the part of the Muslims to present their demands, to the
British government and to seek their acceptance. The Simla deputation comprised 35 Muslims
from all over India. It was a galaxy of Muslims leaders from all the provinces, from one end of
India to the other and it had Muslims of all background. Therefore, when in 1906, this deputation
called on the Viceroy, it was the most representative Muslim delegation. This delegation was led
by Sir Agha Khan and Nawab Mohsin ul Malik served as a secretary and this delegation met the
Viceroy in Simla that was why it was called as Simla Deputation. The memorandum which they
presented was a kind of demands which were the uppermost in the minds of the Muslims at that
time. The delegation emphasized that the Muslims should not be viewed simply in numerical
terms but they should take into account their historical importance and the kind of contribution
the Muslims had made to British India and keeping in view that importance they should work
towards accommodating their demands. The delegation emphasized that democratic principle
should be introduced keeping in view the peculiar conditions and circumstances of India. The
diversity, the fact that there different kinds of people living in India and the fact that the Muslims
consider themselves to be a separate entity, all these things had to be taken into account because
the India was not a homogenous amalgamated or monolithic political identity. It was a political
identity comprising diversity, divergence in view, divergence in outlook and when you introduce
some kind of system then these realities had to be accommodated. In view of this submission
they presented some demands:
Representation more than their population because of their importance. Separate electorate
Reservations of Muslims seats in government jobs Special share in Municipal or district boards
University senates and syndicates Muslim representation in Viceroy Executive Council. Muslim
University at Aligarh. The Viceroy was sympathetic towards the demands. It encouraged the
Muslims to launch struggle for their rights parallel to the Indian National Congress but it
required an organized platform.
3: Formation of the Muslim League in Dhaka: December 30, 1906.
Time had come to formally organize the Muslims after the success of the Simla Deputation. The
Muslim leaders desired to create a permanent political forum. After the meeting of the Mohammedan Educational Conference, the Muslim leaders met to set up the All India Muslim
League. Wiqar-ul-Mulk chaired the meeting. Nawab Salimullah proposed Muslim League and
Hakim Ajmal Khan and Maulana Zafar Ali Khan seconded.
In the Karachi session Dec. 1907 its constitution was approved and in March 1908 at Aligarh,
Agha Khan was formally elected its president.
Q.NO. 13: London Branch: May 1908.
Justice Amir Ali Syed organised a branch of Muslim League at London and responded
effectively to the misunderstandings and conspiracies of the Hindus against the Muslims.
GOALS:
1. Protection and promotion of political rights and interests of the Muslims.
2. Cooperation with other communities without prejudice to the above goal.
3. Fostering sense of loyalty, among the Muslims, towards the government
4: Change in the Goals of the Muslim League 1913.
Important developments occurred during the first decade of the 20th century like annulment of
the Partition of Bengal and Western aggression towards Muslim countries, Balkan wars, LibyaItaly war, Demolition of the mosque in Kawnpur (1913), etc. weakened Muslim faith in the
British. This led to a major drift in the Muslim League’s policy. In 1913, the League changed its
goals:
• Self government under the British Crown keeping in view the peculiar conditions in India.
• Good relations with other communities’ cooperation with any party working for similar goals.
This change brought the ML and Congress closer. In this way the era of cooperation between
Hindus and Muslims set in. The role of the Quaid-i-Azam is highly noteworthy to bring the
Congress and the Muslim League to the table. He joined the Muslim League in 1913.
5: Lucknow Pact, 1916.
The Lucknow pact was the product of Hindu-Muslim unity envisaged by M. A. Jinnah. In
December 1915, the ML and Congress met separately in Bombay. Both the parties set upcommittees for making a scheme for constitutional changes in consultation with other political
parties. Role of the Quaid-i-Azam Jinnah did a lot to unite the two nations along with the
recognition of the rights of Muslims. Meeting of both parties held at Lucknow in 1916. The
constitutional proposals were approved:
1. One Third seats for Muslims in the Imperial Legislative Council.
2. Separate Electorate
3. Half members of the Executive Council to be elected by the Imperial Legislative Council.
4. Commissioned ranks of the army for Indians.
5. Expansion of Provincial Legislative Councils.
6. Half members of the Governor’s Executive Council be elected by Provincial Legislative
Council.
7. Weightage to minorities in provinces.Gains from Muslim Point-of-view.
1. Separate Electorate
2. One Third Muslim seats in Central Legislature.
3. Unofficial bill, if opposed by three-fourth members of a community, it will not be
passed.
August 20, 1917 Announcement by British Government Secretary of State Montagu promised
for:
1. Greater association of Indian in all branches of government.
2. Responsible government
3. Induction of Indians in the commissioned ranks.
Conclusion:
The historical struggle of the Muslims confirmed their identity. They organized their political
party to address the demands. They also got recognition by the Hindus as a separate nation. The
British accepted their role in the political domain.
Q. NO. 14: - The Khilafat Movement.
The Khilafat movement was a religio-political movement launched by the Muslims of British
India for the retention of the Ottoman Caliphate and for not handing over the control of Muslim
holy places to non-Muslims. Turkey sided with Germany in World War 1. As it began to lose the
war,\ concerns were expressed in India about the future of Turkey. It was a peak period from
1919 to 1922 casting demonstrations, boycott, and other pressure by the two major communities,
the Hindus and the Muslims. Being brothers, the Indian Muslims realized their religious duty tohelp the Muslim country. It was the extra territorial attachments based on Islam. Another factor
same to the first was that the Indian Muslims considered Ottoman Caliphate a symbol of unity of
the Muslim world as Ummah.
Goals:
1. Ottoman Khilafat should be kept intact.
2 . Territorial solidarity of Turkey be preserved.
3. Control of holy the places should not be given to non-Muslims.
Dimensions:
The writings of the Muslim intellectuals provoked the sentiments for the preservation of Khilafat
and retention of the Muslims control of the holy places. The Muslims journalism played a vital
role to steer the direction of the struggle. Zamindar of Zafar Ali Khan, Comrade and Hamdard of
Maulana Muhammad Ali Jauhar, and Al-Hilal of Maulana Abul Kalam Azad etc. were the
prominent newspapers and magazines which performed their duties to express their resentment.
The Allies imposed humiliating terms on vanquished Turkey.
Protests in India:
All India Khilafat Committee was formed at Bombay in July 1919. The first Khilafat Conference
at Delhi in November 1919 was arranged in which the Congress leaders like Gandhi and Nehru
participated. In this way, the major political parties joined hands to assault the injustice with the
Muslim community. These steps were announced: No participation in victory celebrations.
Boycott of British goods Non Cooperation with the Government The second Khilafat Conference
(Amritsar) was held in Dec. 1919. Maulana Muhammad Ali and Shaukat Ali joined the session
after being\ released from prison. In Jan. 1920, M. A. Ansari led a delegation to Viceroy while
Maulana M. A. Jauhar to Europe. The Khilafat Committee decided to start non-cooperation in
collaboration with the Congress in May 1920.
Rowlett Act, 1919:
Rowlett Act was a black law introduced in India. To the law, the government got authority to
persecute any Indian and the arrested had no facility of legal assistance and right to appeal just as
the ‘Lettres de Cachet’ in France before the French Revolution. Jinnah resigned from the central
legislature as a protest.
Jallianwala Bagh Incident, April 1919 The people gathered in Jallianwala Bagh at Amritsar but
General Dyer opened fire to disperse the throng that cast a huge human casualties (379). It is
considered one of the great tragedies in India. In 1940, by killing Governor Punjab, Sir Michaal
O’ Dayer, ‘Ram Muhammad Singh Azad’ got revenge of the Indian massacre.
The Nagpur Session of the Congress (Dec. 1920) approved non-cooperation with Government
but Jinnah opposed and left the Congress because he was against the use of extra-constitutional
means
Non-Cooperation:
• Return Titles.
• Boycott of courts and educational institutions.
• Resign from jobs.
• Later resign from police and military jobs.
• Refusal to pay taxes.
Khilafat Conference, Karachi, July 1921 In the session the participants expressed their loyalty to
Turkish Sultan. They decided to continue the agitation and supported Attaturk to expel foreign
forces from Turkey.
Hijrat Movement 1920-21 The Indian ulama (religious leaders) declared India ‘Darul Harab.’
Darul Harab means the place (country) where Muslims are not allowed to perform their religious
practices. In the said situation, the Muslims should migrate to the nearest safe place. The ulama
issued verdicts to go to Darul Islam, Afghanistan. There was an impression that King of
Afghanistan would welcome them. So the migration took place at large scale. Initially Afghans
welcomed them. Later, they closed the border and pushed the migrants back to the Indian
territories. It resulted in loss of lives and money. Many died during this mission. Some went to
Soviet Union from Afghanistan because they had nothing in India now.
End of the Movement Moplah Revolt Malabar Coast, near Kalicut Moplahs were the
descendents of the Arab Muslims settled in the Sub-Continent even before the arrival of
Muhammad Bin Qasim. In August 1921, they revolted against Hindu landlords whose treatment
was very brutal with them. Later this clash changed as Moplahs versus the Police and Hindu.
This embittered the Hindu-Muslim relations.
- There was an increase in violence day by day and the Chorachori Incident (UP) in
February 1922 worsened the situation. The Congress volunteers set a police station on
fire and 21 policemen were killed. Gandhi suddenly called off the movement.
Developments in Turkey In 1922 Attaturk emerged as a national leader and restricted
powers of Sultan. Next he was appointed Chief of the state by Grand National Assembly.
In March 1924, Khilafat was abolished. This caused a widespread resentment among the
Indian Muslims. They sent delegations to Turkey but failed to achieve their objectives.
Conclusions:
- It was re-affirmation of the reality that religion is a mobilizing force and especially Islam
has mobilization capacity to organize masses.
- It was the movement launched on the basis of extra-territorialism. Later, no such
movement but Pan-Islamic sentiments continued.
- It resulted in the sufferings of the Muslims.
- Hindu-Muslim unity proved short-lived.
Reactivation of the Muslim League and other Muslim organizations to restart their activities as a
separate nation was the great outcome.
Q. NO. 15: Muslim Politics in British India:1924-1935.
1. Delhi Muslim Proposals.
2. Nehru Report.
3. Quaid-i-Azam’s Fourteen Points.
4. Simon Commission.
5. Round Table Conferences.
6. Constitutional Proposals.
Backdrop:
The Khilafat movement brought Hindu-Muslim communities to cooperation. The leaders made
the efforts to revive harmony for preparing constitutional proposals.
1: Delhi Muslim Proposals: March 1927
Important Muslim leaders on the initiative of the Quaid met in Delhi to discuss constitutional and
political issues. The major demands were:
• Punjab and Bengal: statuary Muslim majorities
• No Weightage in provinces
• Sind to be separated from Bombay
• Constitutional Reforms in NWFP
• One-third seats for Muslims in Central Legislature
• On communal issues, no law will be passed if three-fourth members of the concerned
community oppose it.
If these demands are accepted, they will give up ‘separate electorate.’ Subsequently, the Muslim
League was divided in the Punjab, Shafi League and Jinnah League. Sir Muhammad Shafi
opposed Jinnah on the issues:
• Separate electorate.
• Attitude towards the Simon Commission. Jinnah continued his unremitting efforts to promote
Hindu-Muslim unity.
2: The Nehru Report: 1928 The main objective was to constitute proposals for the Indian
Constitution. The Congress called All Parties Conference that appointed a 10-member committee in May 1928 under the Chairmanship of Motilal Nehru and Secretary ship of Jawaharlal Nehru.
Recommend tions that threatened Muslim interests are:
• No Separate electorate
• No One-third seats for Muslims in Central Assembly
• No reservation of seats for Muslims in Punjab and Bengal. In Hindu- majority provinces, the
Muslims may be given seats according to population
• Sind to be made a province if it can bear its expenses. Balochistan, NWFP were accepted to be
given constitutional status on certain conditions
.
Quaid-i-Azam tried to get amendments in the Report in the All Parties Conference in Calcutta
but did not succeed. This is the very moment when Jinnah remarked, “it is parting of the ways.”
He presented the 14 points as a Muslim leader.
3: Jinnah’s Fourteen Points: 1929:
1. Federal system with residuary powers with the provinces
2. Provincial autonomy.
3. Separate electorate for Muslims.
4. Effective representation to minorities in the provinces but the majority should not be reduced
to minority
5. One-third representation of Muslims in Central Legislature.
6. One third Muslim representation in cabinets.
7. No changes in the boundaries of the Punjab and Bengal that would adversely affect Muslim
majority.
8. Religious freedom to all.
Q. NO. 16: ALLAMA IQBAL’s Presidential Address December 1930.
Dr Allama Muhammad Iqbal ranks amongst the Muslim intellectuals who left a deep impact on
history. He inspired Muslims of the Sub-Continent and beyond. He infused a moving spirit and
identity in the Indian Muslims. He presented a framework of their political future and talked how
that would help to achieve the goal of Ummah. He presented a vision and dream in his Allahabad
Address.
1: Background.
The Hindu-Muslim question had great importance and stood crucial to British Indian history
after
1857, especially in the 20th century. To Muslims, the key issue remained ‘separate identity.’
They tried their level best to make the rival nations understand that the Muslims are a separate
nation having different culture and civilization, interests and rights. The Two Nations theory
could not fascinate the Hindus and the British peoples because they believed in ‘territorial
nationalism.’ The Hindus desired to absorb them in their majority but they could not face the
arguments of the Muslim intellectuals. By 1930, Muslims had developed a sense of identity and
political demands. Iqbal delivered his Presidential address in this background.
Iqbal’s stay in Europe, 1905-08, helped to crystallize his thoughts. He returned to India in 1908
and started work on the roots of Muslim decline and the mechanism to uplift the Muslims. He
reminded them to follow the teachings of the Holy Prophet (PBUH) practically as the ideal
leader. He emphasized on the ideals, teachings and principles of Islam. He sought salvation
through Islam. He was awarded with many prominent social positions:
• Title of Sir was conferred in 1922
• Member Punjab Legislative Council (1927-1930)
He delivered lectures on Islam in Aligarh, Hyderabad and Madras (1928-29). At Allahabad, he
presided over the meeting and delivered his famous address.
Q. NO. 17: Muslim Politics and Chaudhry Rahmat Ali
Intellectuals give lines of movement, leaders act upon and the masses prove good soldiers and
this way nations accomplish their achievements. Rahmat Ali was one of the eminent scholars
who made a significant contribution to the movement for the establishment of Pakistan. He was
conscious of Muslim identity and outlined proposals for the partition of India for the sake of
Muslims. He was the man who coined the name, PAKISTAN, for the Muslim state. When he first
presented his proposal for a Muslim state, nobody took it seriously.
The Muslim intellectuals and leaders were concerned about the future of the Muslims in India.
They ensured a secure future for Muslims. For this purpose they worked out various proposals
for securing a homeland. Rahmat Ali becomes relevant here. Biographical Sketch Ch. Rahmat
Ali was born in Hoshiarpur district in 1893. Traditionally he did his B.A. from Islamia College,
Lahore. He did the private and government jobs for some time and then left for Cambridge
University for higher education.
He was involved actively in the activities for the protection of rights of the Indian Muslims along
with some other students at Cambridge University. His activism goes back to his student days in
Lahore when he talked of separate state for Muslims of India.
Rahmat Ali’s Views He said that North Western areas are Muslim majority ares. We will not only
keep these majorities but will turn them into a Muslim state. Muslims should get rid of
Indianism, it is better for Muslims and Islam. In his writing, NOW OR NEVER (January 1933),
he proposed the name of Muslim state, PAKISTAN. P Punjab A Afghania NWFP K Kashmir S
Sind TAN Balochistan INDIA cannot be described as a state/country or home of single nation.
This state did not exist as one political entity before the advent of the British. The Muslims are a
distinct nation who has maintained its identity throughout. They are a separate nation. They have
as much right to live as the Hindus. Pakistan should be separated from the rest of India. He
further said that the conflict between Muslims and Hindus is not religious, sectarian or economic
but an international. The Muslims are striving for survival; Hindus are trying for domination over
the other nations living in the Sub-Continent particularly the Muslims. He established the
Pakistan National Movement in 1940. He began to talk about Bengal and Hyderabad as Muslim
areas and separate states. Bang-i-Islam would comprise of Bengal and Assam and Osmanistan of
Hyderabad Deccan. He visited Pakistan in 1948 but the atmosphere of the motherland did not
suit him and so he returned to Cambridge. He died there on 11 February 1951.
His Contribution
It is the ever-shining contribution of Rahmat Ali that he coined the name of the Muslim state. He
said that being nation, the Indian Muslims deserved a separate homeland. He gave the future
lines to the Muslims considering Islamic thoughts universal and true in comparison with the
contemporary isms. When the Lahore Resolution was passed, it was instantly described as
Pakistan Resolution. It, the division of India, was the solution of Hindu-Muslim question but
Rahmat Ali proposed this long before the Lahore Resolution.
Q. NO. 18: The Congress Ministries-- Policies towards Muslims.
Topics:
1. Elections
2. Provincial Governments
3. Their Policies
4. Muslim Response
Government of India Act, 1935: The Government of India Act, 1935 was not fully promulgated
but the only provincial part was introduced in the country. Muslim League and the Congress
criticized it but agreed to contest provincial elections.
The 1937 Elections:
The elections of 1937 were held with the restricted franchise and separate electorate. The
Congress projected itself as an all-India force representing all religions and factions of the
society. The Muslim League contested for the Muslim seats. There was a tough competition from
the other Muslim organizations. The elections were completed in February 1937. The Congress
got majorities in five provinces, Madras, U.P., C.P., Bihar, and Orissa. It emerged as the largest
party in Bombay and won 704 out of 1585 general seats.
The Muslim League performed poorly in the elections and got only about 21 percent of Muslim
seats without winning majority anywhere, Bengal, Punjab, NWFP, and Sind. It was mostly due to
the organizational problems and opposition by local Muslim groups.
Formation of Provincial Governments:
In July 1937, Congress formed governments in 6 provinces. In NWFP, Khudai Khidmatgar and
Congress formed a coalition government. In the Muslim majority provinces, the Muslim League
could not form the governments. The Muslim League desired to be in government in the U.P. but
the Congress consented to a conditional support:
1. Dissolve AIML Parliamentary Board
2. AIML members not to function as a separate group
3. AIML members to express allegiance to the Congress
Definitely the above-mentioned terms were a device to subvert the existence of the Muslim
League. Therefore, no agreement was possible on this issue.
Policies of the Congress Governments: (July 1937-Nov. 1939)
First all Congress governments in the provinces launched anti-Muslim drive basically to exclude
the ML and other Muslim organizations from the government making process. The Congress
leaders had come to know that the ML had got roots in the masses. They started ‘Muslim Mass
Contact’ movement to defame the ML in their favour. They were making cultural and educational
policies that promoted the Hindu culture and symbols in the name of Indian culture. They introduced Banda Mataram anthem from Annandmath in the institutions and offices etc. The
Hindi language was given top most importance in their policies. Wardha Educational Scheme
was to convert Muslims into Hindus through primary educational literature. Projection of Hindu
heroes like Gandhi and distortion of Muslim history became their moral creed. They followed the
policy of discrimination in services or new recruitment for jobs.
The Congress ministries adopted overall negative and cruel attitude, especially towards the
Muslim activists. This unjust treatment compelled the Muslims to be disciplined in every sphere
of life.
Q. NO. 19: The Lahore Resolution, 1940.
The experience of Congress Rule compelled the Muslims to launch the movement for separate
homeland. The Hindus made them realize that Hindu government would mean an anti-Muslim
rule in India. The Muslims’ disappointment from the Congress leadership decided to open a new
phase of history. Quaid-i-Azam’s article in Time and Tide concluded that Muslims are a nation.
No Constitution can be enforced by ignoring Muslims. His comments on March 13, 1940 are
remarkable: “If some satisfactory settlement cannot be found for Muslims in united India, the
Muslim will have to demand for division of the country.”
The Lahore Resolution:
The Muslim League held its annual session at Lahore on 22-24 March 1940. The Lahore Resolution was moved by Maulvi Fazlul Haq and seconded by Ch. Khaliquzzaman that finally
approved on March 24, 1940. Jinnah rightly expressed his valuable remarks about the political
circumstances of India and the Muslims stand. He said:
“Indian problem is not communal but international. No Constitution can work without
recognizing this reality. Muslims of India will not accept a constitution that establishes a
government of the Hindu majority on them. If Hindus and Muslims are placed under one
democratic system, this would mean Hindu Raj.”
Text of the Resolution:
• They decided that the Federal system under Government of India Act, 1935 was not acceptable
for the Muslims.
• No revised constitutional plan would be acceptable unless it was framed with their approval
and consent.
• Adjacent units where Muslims are in a majority, as in Northwest and East, should be constituted
as Independent States where the constituent units will be autonomous and sovereign.
• Protection of minorities would be given priority.
Significance:
This Resolution did not specify any demarcation of the territory but it defined the future plan of
struggle for the establishment of the Muslims states (later the word ‘states’ was replaced by
‘state’ in 1946) in the Northwestern and Eastern areas where the Muslims were in overwhelming
majority. It also intended to give importance to the autonomy of the states. There was no use of
the word Pakistan but Pakistan was kernel of the Resolution.
Later Developments:
The World War II started in 1939 that required heavily men powered battlefield. The British who
always believe in bargaining announced an offer in August 1940:
1. Expansion of the Viceroy’s Executive Coucil and the setting up of National Defence
Council
2. Special importance to the views of minorities in the revision of the constitution.
3. Power could not be transferred under a system that will not be acceptable to large and
powerful minorities in India.
4. Dominion Status: the ultimate goal
5. Cooperation of Indians for the war Congress rejected it and started Non-Cooperation
movement 1940-41. Lahore Resolution remained the ultimate goal for the Muslim Leagues.
The Cripps Mission, March 1942.
The constitutional proposals for seeking Indian cooperation for war efforts:
- . Dominion status
- . Indian constitutional body to frame constitution
- . Princely states would be represented.
The Cripps Mission negotiated with Indian leaders and issued the proposals. The Congress
rejected the proposals and demanded that a responsible government would be set up immediately
after the war. The defense affairs should be under the Indian control. The Muslim League also
rejected the proposals and repeated its stand that the Muslims could not live in Indian Union.
The Hindus started Quit India Movement in August 1942 seeing British in trouble. The Muslim
League stayed aloof and responded by saying that divide and quit India.
Gandhi-Jinnah Talks, September 1944.
MK Gandhi did not accept the Hindus and Muslims as Two Nations and emphasized on the
freedom of united India. Jinnah told him that the Muslims could never budge even a single inch
from their ideological and constitutional demand.
Q. NO. 20: Major Political Developments in 1945-46.
Political Situation in 1945.
During the World War ll, the British sought Indian military cooperation and offered political and
constitutional changes after the war. They desired to expand the Viceroy’s Executive Council.
Lord Wavell arranged Simla Conference during June-July 1945 in which all the political parties
participated by sending their representatives. Jinnah and Abul Kalam Azad represented the
Muslim League (ML) and the Congress respectively. Maulana Azad claimed Congress as sole
representative party of all the peoples living in India. Jinnah considered the ML the only political
party of the Indian Muslims and on this the ML had right to appoint Muslim members to the
Council. This issue could not be dissolved and the differences between the ML and the Congress
increased.
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